Rust Language Cheat Sheet
19.08.2019
Contains clickable links to The Book BK, Rust by Example EX, Std Docs STD, Nomicon NOM, Reference REF. Other symbols used: largely deprecated 🗑️, has a minimum edition '18, is work in progress 🚧, or bad 🛑.
Data Structures
Data types and memory locations defined via keywords.
| Example | Explanation |
|---|---|
struct S {} | Define a struct BK EX STD REF with named fields. |
struct S { x: T } | Define struct with named field x of type T. |
struct S (T); | Define "tupled" struct with numbered field .0 of type T. |
struct S; | Define zero sized unit struct. |
enum E {} | Define an enum BK EX REF , c. algebraic data types, tagged unions. |
enum E { A, B(), C {} } | Define variants of enum; can be unit- A, tuple- B () and struct-like C{}. |
enum E { A = 1 } | If variants are only unit-like, allow discriminant values, e.g., for FFI. |
union U {} | Unsafe C-like union REF for FFI compatibility. |
static X: T = T(); | Global variable BK EX REF with 'static lifetime, single memory location. |
const X: T = T(); | Defines constant BK EX REF. Copied into a temporary when used. |
let x: T; | Allocate T bytes on stack bound as x. Assignable once, not mutable. |
let mut x: T; | Like let, but allow for mutability and mutable borrow. * |
x = y; | Moves y to x, invalidating y if T is not Copy, and copying y otherwise. |
* Note that technically mutable and immutable
are a bit of a misnomer. Even if you have an immutable binding or shared
reference, it might contain a
Cell,
which supports so called interior mutability.
Creating and accessing data structures; and some more sigilic types.
| Example | Explanation |
|---|---|
S { x: y } | Create struct S {} or use'ed enum E::S {} with field x set to y. |
S { x } | Same, but use local variable x for field x. |
S { ..s } | Fill remaining fields from s, esp. useful with Default. |
S { 0: x } | Like S (x) below, but set field .0 with struct syntax. |
S (x) | Create struct S (T) or use'ed enum E::S () with field .0 set to x. |
S | If S is unit struct S; or use'ed enum E::S create value of S. |
E::C { x: y } | Create enum variant C. Other methods above also work. |
() | Empty tuple, both literal and type, aka unit STD |
(x) | Parenthesized expression. |
(x,) | Single-element tuple expression. EX STD REF |
(S,) | Single-element tuple type. |
[S] | Array type of unspecified length, i.e., slice. STD EX REF Can't live on stack. * |
[S; n] | Array type EX STD of fixed length n holding elements of type S. |
[x; n] | Array instance with n copies of x. REF |
[x, y] | Array instance with given elements x and y. |
x[0] | Collection indexing. Overloadable Index, IndexMut |
x[..] | Collection slice-like indexing via RangeFull, c. slices. |
x[a..] | Collection slice-like indexing via RangeFrom. |
x[..b] | Collection slice-like indexing RangeTo. |
x[a..b] | Collection slice-like indexing via Range. |
a..b | Right-exclusive range REF creation, also seen as ..b. |
a..=b | Inclusive range creation, also seen as ..=b. |
s.x | Named field access, REF might try to Deref if x not part of type S. |
s.0 | Numbered field access, used for tuple types S (T). |
* For now, see tracking issue and corresponding RFC 1909.
References & Pointers
Granting access to un-owned memory. Also see section on Generics & Constraints.
| Example | Explanation |
|---|---|
&S | Shared reference BK STD NOM REF (space for holding any &s). |
&[S] | Special slice reference that contains (address, length). |
&str | Special string reference that contains (address, length). |
&dyn S | Special trait object BK reference that contains (address, vtable). |
&mut S | Exclusive reference to allow mutability (also &mut [S], &mut dyn S, ...) |
*const S | Immutable raw pointer type BK STD REF w/o memory safety. |
*mut S | Mutable raw pointer type w/o memory safety. |
&s | Shared borrow BK EX STD (e.g., address, len, vtable, ... of this s, like 0x1234). |
&mut s | Exclusive borrow that allows mutability. EX |
ref s | Bind by reference. BK EX 🗑️ |
*r | Dereference BK STD NOM a reference r to access what it points to. |
*r = s; | If r is a mutable reference, move or copy s to target memory. |
s = *r; | Make s a copy of whatever r references, if that is Copy. |
s = *my_box; | Special case for Box that can also move out Box'ed content if it isn't Copy. |
'a | A lifetime parameter, BK EX NOM REF, duration of a flow in static analysis. |
&'a S | Only accepts a s with an address that lives 'a or longer. |
&'a mut S | Same, but allow content of address to be changed. |
S<'a> | Signals S will contain address with lifetime 'a. Creator of S decides 'a. |
fn f<'a>(t: &'a T) | Same, for function. Caller decides 'a. |
'static | Special lifetime lasting the entire program execution. |
Functions & Behavior
Define units of code and their abstractions.
| Example | Explanation |
|---|---|
trait T {} | Define a trait. BK EX REF |
trait T : R {} | T is subtrait of supertrait REF R. Any S must impl R before it can impl T. |
impl S {} | Implementation REF of functionality for a type S. |
impl T for S {} | Implement trait T for type S. |
impl !T for S {} | Disable an automatically derived auto trait NOM REF. |
fn f() {} | Definition of a function BK EX REF; or associated function if inside impl. |
fn f() -> S {} | Same, returning a value of type S. |
fn f(&self) {} | Define a method as part of an impl. |
const fn f() {} | Constant fn usable at compile time, e.g., const X: u32 = f(Y). '18 |
async fn f() {} | Async 🚧 '18 function transformation, makes f return an impl Future. STD |
async fn f() -> S {} | Same, but make f return an impl Future<Output=S>. |
async { x } | Used within a function, make { x } an impl Future<Output=X>. |
fn() -> S | Function pointers, BK STD REF don't confuse with trait Fn. |
|| {} | A closure BK EX REF that borrows its captures. |
|x| {} | Closure with a bound parameter x. |
|x| x + x | Closure without block expression. |
move |x| x + y | Closure taking ownership of its captures. |
return || true | Closures may sometimes look like logical ORs (here: return a closure). |
unsafe {} | If you need to crash your code in production; unsafe code. BK EX NOM REF |
Control Flow
Control execution within a function.
| Example | Explanation |
|---|---|
while x {} | Loop REF, run while expression x is true. |
loop {} | Loop infinitely REF until break. Can yield value with break x. |
for x in iter {} | Syntactic sugar to loop over iterators. BK STD REF |
if x {} else {} | Conditional branch REF if expression is true. |
'label: loop {} | Loop label EX REF, useful for flow control in nested loops. |
break | Break expression REF to exit a loop. |
break x | Same, but make x value of the loop expression (only in actual loop). |
break 'label | Exit not only this loop, but the enclosing one marked with 'label. |
continue | Continue expression REF to the next loop iteration of this loop. |
continue 'label | Same, but instead of enclosing loop marked with 'label. |
x? | If x is Err or None, return and propagate. BK EX STD REF |
x.await | Only works inside async. Yield flow until Future or Stream ? x ready. 🚧 '18 |
return x | Early return from function. More idiomatic way is to end with expression. |
f() | Invoke callable f (e.g., a function, closure, function pointer, Fn, ...). |
x.f() | Call member function, requires f takes self, &self, ... as first argument. |
X::f(x) | Same as x.f(). Unless impl Copy for X {}, f can only be called once. |
X::f(&x) | Same as x.f(). |
X::f(&mut x) | Same as x.f(). |
S::f(&x) | Same as x.f() if X derefs to S (i.e., x.f() finds methods of S). |
T::f(&x) | Same as x.f() if X impl T (i.e., x.f() finds methods of T if in scope). |
X::f() | Call associated function, e.g., X::new(). |
<X as T>::f() | Call trait method T::f() implemented for X. |
Organizing Code
Segment projects into smaller units and minimize dependencies.
| Example | Explanation |
|---|---|
mod m {} | Define a module BK EX REF, get definition from inside {}. |
mod m; | Define a module, get definition from m.rs or m/mod.rs. |
a::b | Namespace path EX REF to element b within a (mod, enum, ...). |
::b | Search b relative to crate root. 🗑️ |
crate::b | Search b relative to crate root. '18 |
self::b | Search b relative to current module. |
super::b | Search b relative to parent module. |
use a::b; | Use EX REF b directly in this scope without requiring a anymore. |
use a::{b, c}; | Same, but bring b and c into scope. |
use a::b as x; | Bring b into scope but name x, like use std::error::Error as E. |
use a::b as _; | Bring b anonymously into scope, useful for traits with conflicting names. |
use a::*; | Bring everything from a into scope. |
pub use a::b; | Bring a::b into scope and reexport from here. |
pub T | "Public if parent path is public" visibility BK for T. |
pub(crate) T | Visible at most in current crate. |
pub(self) T | Visible at most in current module. |
pub(super) T | Visible at most in parent. |
pub(in a::b) T | Visible at most in a::b. |
extern crate a; | Declare dependency on external crate BK EX REF 🗑️ ; just use a::b in '18. |
extern "C" {} | Declare external dependencies and ABI (e.g., "C") from FFI. BK EX NOM REF |
extern "C" fn f() {} | Define function to be exported with ABI (e.g., "C") to FFI. |
Type Aliases and Casts
Short-hand names of types, and methods to convert one type to another.
| Example | Explanation |
|---|---|
type T = S; | Create a type alias BK REF, i.e., another name for S. |
Self | Type alias for implementing type REF, e.g. fn new() -> Self. |
self | Method subject in fn f(self) {}, same as fn f(self: Self) {}. |
&self | Same, but refers to self as borrowed, same as f(self: &Self) |
&mut self | Same, but mutably borrowed, same as f(self: &mut Self) |
self: Box<Self> | Arbitrary self type, add methods to smart pointers (my_box.f_of_self()). |
S as T | Disambiguate BK REF type S as trait T, e.g., <X as T>::f(). |
S as R | In use of symbol, import S as R, e.g., use a::b as x. |
x as u32 | Primitive cast EX REF, may truncate and be a bit surprising. NOM |
Macros & Attributes
Code generation constructs expanded before the actual compilation happens.
| Example | Explanation |
|---|---|
m!() | Macro BK STD REF invocation, also m!{}, m![] (depending on macro). |
$x:ty | Macro capture, also $x:expr, $x:ty, $x:path, ... see next table. |
$x | Macro substitution in macros by example. BK EX REF |
$(x),* | Macro repetition "zero or more times" in macros by example. |
$(x),? | Same, but "zero or one time". |
$(x),+ | Same, but "one or more times". |
$(x)<<+ | In fact separators other than , are also accepted. Here: <<. |
$crate | Special hygiene variable, crate where macros is defined. ? |
#[attr] | Outer attribute. EX REF, annotating the following item. |
#![attr] | Inner attribute, annotating the surrounding item. |
In a macro_rules! implementation, the following macro captures can be used:
| Macro Capture | Explanation |
|---|---|
$x:item | An item, like a function, struct, module, etc. |
$x:block | A block {} of statements or expressions, e.g., { let x = 5; } |
$x:stmt | A statement, e.g., let x = 1 + 1;, String::new(); or vec![]; |
$x:expr | An expression, e.g., x, 1 + 1, String::new() or vec![] |
$x:pat | A pattern, e.g., Some(t), (17, 'a') or _. |
$x:ty | A type, e.g., String, usize or Vec<u8>. |
$x:ident | An identifier, for example in let x = 0; the identifier is x. |
$x:path | A path (e.g. foo, ::std::mem::replace, transmute::<_, int>, …). |
$x:literal | A literal (e.g. 3, "foo", b"bar", etc.). |
$x:meta | A meta item; the things that go inside #[...] and #![...] attributes. |
$x:tt | A single token tree, see here for more details. |
Pattern Matching
Constructs found in match or let expressions, or function parameters.
| Example | Explanation |
|---|---|
match m {} | Initiate pattern matching BK EX REF, then use match arms, c. next table. |
let S(x) = get(); | Notably, let also pattern matches similar to the table below. |
let S { x } = s; | Only x will be bound to value s.x. |
let (_, b, _) = abc; | Only b will be bound to value abc.1. |
let (a, ..) = abc; | Ignoring 'the rest' also works. |
let Some(x) = get(); | Won't work 🛑 if pattern can be refuted REF, use if let instead. |
if let Some(x) = get() {} | Branch if pattern can actually be assigned (e.g., enum variant). |
fn f(S { x }: S) | Function parameters also work like let, here x bound to s.x of f(s). |
Pattern matching arms in match expressions. The left side of these arms can also be found in let expressions.
| Example | Explanation |
|---|---|
E::A => {} | Match enum variant A, c. pattern matching. BK EX REF |
E::B ( .. ) => {} | Match enum tuple variant B, wildcard any index. |
E::C { .. } => {} | Match enum struct variant C, wildcard any field. |
S { x: 0, y: 1 } => {} | Match struct with specific params. |
S { x, y } => {} | Match struct with any values, bind respective fields as variables x and y. |
S { .. } => {} | Match struct with any values. |
D => {} | Match enum variant E::D if D in use. |
D => {} | Match anything, bind D; possibly false friend 🛑 of E::D if D not in use. |
_ => {} | Proper wildcard that matches anything / "all the rest". |
[a, 0] => {} | Match array with any value for a and 0 for second. |
(a, 0) => {} | Match tuple with any value for a and 0 for second. |
x @ 1..=5 => {} | Bind matched to x; pattern binding BK EX. |
0 | 1 => {} | Pattern alternatives (or-patterns). |
E::A | E::Z | Same, but on enum variants. |
E::C {x} | E::D {x} | Same, but bind x if all variants have it. |
S { x } if x > 10 | Pattern match guards. BK EX |
Generics & Constraints
Generics combine with many other constructs such as struct S<T>, fn f<T>(), ...
| Example | Explanation |
|---|---|
S<T> | A generic BK EX type with a type parameter (T is placeholder name here). |
S<T: R> | Type short hand trait bound BK EX specification (R must be actual trait). |
T: R, P: S | Independent trait bounds (here one for T and one for P). |
T: R, S | Compile error 🛑, you probably want compound bound R + S below. |
T: R + S | Compound trait bound BK EX, T must fulfill R and S. |
T: R + 'a | Same, but w. lifetime. T must fulfill R, if T has lifetimes, must outlive 'a. |
T: ?Sized | Opt out of a pre-defined trait bound, here Sized. ? |
T: 'a | Type lifetime bound EX; if T has references, they must outlive 'a. |
'b: 'a | Lifetime 'b must live at least as long as (i.e., outlive) 'a bound. |
S<T> where T: R | Same as S<T: R> but more pleasant to read for longer bounds. |
S<T = R> | Default type parameter BK for associated type. |
S<'_> | Inferred anonymous lifetime. |
S<_> | Inferred anonymous type, e.g., as let x: Vec<_> = iter.collect() |
S::<T> | Turbofish STD call site type disambiguation, e.g. f::<u32>(). |
trait T<X> {} | A trait generic over X. Can have multiple impl T for S (one per X). |
trait T { type X; } | Defines associated type BK REF X. Only one impl T for S possible. |
type X = R; | Set associated type within impl T for S { type X = R; }. |
impl<T> S<T> {} | Implement functionality for any T in S<T>. |
impl S<T> {} | Implement functionality for exactly S<T> (e.g., S<u32>). |
fn f() -> impl T | Existential types BK, returns an unknown-to-caller S that impl T. |
fn f(x: &impl T) | Trait bound,"impl traits" BK, somewhat similar to fn f<S:T>(x: &S). |
fn f(x: &dyn T) | Marker for dynamic dispatch BK REF, f will not be monomorphized. |
fn f() where Self: R | In a trait T {}, mark f as accessible only on types that also impl R. |
for<'a> | Higher-rank trait bounds. NOM REF |
Strings & Chars
Rust has several ways to create string or char literals, depending on your needs.
| Example | Explanation |
|---|---|
"..." | String literal REF, will escape \n, ... |
r"...", | Raw string literal. REF, won't escape \n, ... |
r#"..."#, etc. | Raw string literal, but can also contain ". |
b"..." | Byte string literal REF; constructs ASCII [u8], not a string. |
br"...", br#"..."#, etc. | Raw byte string literal, combination of the above. |
'🦀' | Character literal REF, can contain unicode. |
b'x' | ASCII byte literal. REF |
Comments
No comment.
| Example | Explanation |
|---|---|
// | Line comment, use these to document code flow or internals. |
//! | Inner line doc comment BK EX REF for auto generated documentation. |
/// | Outer line doc comment, use these on types. |
/*...*/ | Block comment. |
/*!...*/ | Inner block doc comment. |
/**...*/ | Outer block doc comment. |
```rust ... ``` | In doc comments, include a doc test (doc code running on cargo test). |
# | In doc tests, hide line from documentation (``` # use x::hidden; ```). |
Miscellaneous
These sigils did not fit any other category but are good to know nonetheless.
| Example | Explanation |
|---|---|
! | Always empty never type. 🚧 BK EX STD REF |
_ | Unnamed variable binding, e.g., |x, _| {}. |
_x | Variable binding explicitly marked as unused. |
1_234_567 | Numeric separator for visual clarity. |
1_u8 | Type specifier for numeric literals EX REF (also i8, u16, ...). |
0xBEEF, 0o777, 0b1001 | Hexadecimal (0x), octal (0o) and binary (0b) integer literals. |
r#foo | A raw identifier BK EX for edition compatibility. |
x; | Statement REF terminator, c. expressions EX REF |
Common Operators
Rust supports all common operators you would expect to find in a language (+, *, %, =, ==...).
Since they behave no differently in Rust we do not list them here.
For some of them Rust also supports operator overloading. STD
Invisible Sugar
If something works that "shouldn't work now that you think about it", it might be due to one of these.
| Name | Description |
|---|---|
| Coercions NOM | 'Weaken' types to match signature, e.g., &mut T to &T. |
| Deref NOM | Deref x: T until *x, **x, ... compatible with some target S. |
| Prelude STD | Automatic import of basic types. |
| Reborrow | Since x: &mut T can't be copied; move new &mut *x instead. |
| Lifetime Elision BK NOM REF | Automatically annotate f(x: &T) to f<'a>(x: &'a T). |
| Method Resolution REF | Deref or borrow x until x.f() works. |
Async-Await 101
If you are familiar with async / await in C# or TypeScript, here are some things to keep in mind:
| Construct | Explanation |
|---|---|
async | Anything declared async always returns an impl Future<Output=_>. STD |
async fn f() {} | Function f returns an impl Future<Output=()>. |
async fn f() -> S {} | Function f returns an impl Future<Output=S>. |
async { x } | Transforms { x } into an impl Future<Output=X>. |
let sm = f(); | Calling f() that is async will not execute f, but produce state machine sm. 1 |
sm = async { g() }; | Likewise, does not execute the { g() } block; produces state machine. |
runtime.block_on(sm); 2 | Outside an async {}, schedules sm to actually run. Would execute g(). |
sm.await | Inside an async {}, run sm until complete. Yield to runtime if sm not ready. |
1 Technically
2 Right now Rust doesn't come with its own runtime. Use external crate instead, such as tokio 0.2+. Also, Futures in Rust are an MPV. There is much more utility stuff in the futures crate.
async transforms the following code into an anonymous, compiler-generated state machine type, and f() instantiates that machine.
The state machine always impl Future, possibly Send & co, depending on types you used inside async. State machine driven by worker thread invoking
Future::poll() via runtime directly, or parent .await indirectly.
2 Right now Rust doesn't come with its own runtime. Use external crate instead, such as tokio 0.2+. Also, Futures in Rust are an MPV. There is much more utility stuff in the futures crate.
At each x.await, state machine passes control to subordinate state machine x. At some point a low-level state machine invoked via .await might not be ready. In that the case worker
thread returns all the way up to runtime so it can drive another Future. Some time later the runtime:
- might resume execution. It usually does, unless
sm/Futuredropped. - might resume with the previous worker or another worker thread (depends on runtime).
Simplified diagram for code written inside an async block :
consecutive_code(); consecutive_code(); consecutive_code();
START --------------------> x.await --------------------> y.await --------------------> READY
// ^ ^ ^ Future<Output=X> ready -^
// Invoked via runtime | |
// or an external .await | This might resume on another thread (next best avaialable),
// | or NOT AT ALL if Future was dropped.
// |
// Execute `x`. If ready: just continue execution; if not, return
// this thread to runtime.
This leads to the following considerations when writing code inside an async construct:
| Constructs 1 | Explanation |
|---|---|
sleep_or_block(); | Definitely bad 🛑, never halt current thread, clogs executor. |
set_TL(a); x.await; TL(); | Definitely bad 🛑, await may return from other thread, thread local invalid. |
s.no(); x.await; s.go(); | Maybe bad 🛑, await will not return if Future dropped while waiting. 2 |
Rc::new(); x.await; rc(); | Non-Send types prevent impl Future from being Send; less compatible. |
1 Here we assume
2 Since Drop is run in any case when
s is any non-local that could temporarily be put into an invalid state;
TL is any thread local storage, and that the async {} containing the code is written
without assuming executor specifics.
2 Since Drop is run in any case when
Future is dropped, consider using drop guard that cleans up / fixes application state if it has to be left in bad condition across .await points.
Closures
There is a subtrait relationship Fn : FnMut : FnOnce. That means, a closure that
implements Fn, also implements FnMut and FnOnce. Likewise, a closure
that implements FnMut, also implements FnOnce.
From a call site perspective that means:
| Signature | Function g can call ... | Function g accepts ... |
|---|---|---|
g<F: FnOnce()>(f: F) | ... f() once. | Fn, FnMut, FnOnce |
g<F: FnMut()>(mut f: F) | ... f() multiple times. | Fn, FnMut |
g<F: Fn()>(f: F) | ... f() multiple times. | Fn |
Notice how asking for a
Fn closure as a function is
most restrictive for the caller; but having a Fn
closure as a caller is most compatible with any function.
From the perspective of someone defining a closure:
| Closure | Implements* | Comment |
|---|---|---|
|| { moved_s; } | FnOnce | Caller must give up ownership of moved_s. |
|| { &mut s; } | FnOnce, FnMut | Allows g() to change caller's local state s. |
|| { &s; } | FnOnce, FnMut, Fn | May not mutate state; but can share and reuse s. |
* Rust prefers capturing by reference
(resulting in the most "compatible"
Fn closures from a caller perspective), but can be
forced to capture its environment by copy or move via the
move || {} syntax.
That gives the following advantages and disadvantages:
| Requiring | Advantage | Disadvantage |
|---|---|---|
F: FnOnce | Easy to satisfy as caller. | Single use only, g() may call f() just once. |
F: FnMut | Allows g() to change caller state. | Caller may not reuse captures during g(). |
F: Fn | Many can exist at same time. | Hardest to produce for caller. |
Idiomatic Rust
If you are used to programming Java or C, consider these.
| Idiom | Code |
|---|---|
| Think in Expressions | x = if x { a } else { b }; |
x = loop { break 5 }; | |
fn f() -> u32 { 0 } | |
| Think in Iterators | (1..10).map(f).collect() |
names.iter().filter(|x| x.starts_with("A")) | |
Handle Absence with ? | x = try_something()?; |
get_option()?.run()? | |
| Use Strong Types | enum E { Invalid, Valid { ... } } over ERROR_INVALID = -1 |
enum E { Visible, Hidden } over visible: bool | |
struct Charge(f32) over f32 | |
| Provide Builders | Car::new("Model T").hp(20).run(); |
| Split Implementations | Generic types S<T> can have a separate impl per T. |
Rust doesn't have OO, but with separate impl you can get specialization. | |
| Unsafe | Avoid unsafe {}, often safer, faster solution without it. Exception: FFI. |
| Implement Traits | #[derive(Debug, Copy, ...)] and custom impl where needed. |
| Tooling | With clippy you can improve your code quality. |
| Formatting with rustfmt helps others to read your code. | |
Add unit tests BK (#[test]) to ensure your code works. | |
Add doc tests BK (``` my_api::f() ```) to ensure docs match code. | |
| Documentation | Annotate your APIs with doc comments that can show up on docs.rs. |
| Don't forget to include a summary sentence and the Examples heading. | |
| If applicable: Panics, Errors, Safety, Abort and Undefined Behavior. |
🔥 We highly recommend you also follow the API Guidelines (Checklist) for any shared project! 🔥
A Guide to Reading Lifetimes
Lifetimes can be overwhelming at times. Here is a simplified guide on how to read and interpret constructs containing lifetimes if you are familiar with C.
| Construct | How to read |
|---|---|
let s: S = S(0) | A location that is S-sized, named s, and contains the value S(0). |
If declared with let, that location lives on the stack. | |
Generally, s can mean location of s, and value within s. | |
As a location, s = S(1) means, assign value S(1) to location s. | |
As a value, f(s) means call f with value inside of s. | |
To explicitly talk about its location (address) we do &s. | |
To explicitly talk about a location that can hold such a location we do &S. | |
&'a S | A &S is a location that can hold (at least) an address, called reference. |
Any address stored in here must be that of a valid S. | |
Any address stored must live at least for (outlive) duration 'a. | |
That means during 'a memory targeted by &S can't be invalidated. | |
During 'a target of &S may switch as long as new one also lives for 'a. | |
Also, this &S must be stopped being used before 'a ends. | |
Duration of 'a is purely compile time view, based on static analysis. | |
&S | Sometimes 'a might be elided (or can't be specified) but it still exists. |
| Within methods bodies, lifetimes are determined automatically. | |
| Within signatures, lifetimes may be 'elided' (annotated automatically). | |
&s | This will produce the actual address of location s, called 'borrow'. |
The moment &s is produced, location s is put into a borrowed state. | |
| Checking if in borrowed state is based on compile-time analysis. | |
| This analysis is based on all possible address propagation paths. | |
As long as any &s could be around, s cannot be altered directly. | |
For example, in let a = &s; let b = a;, also b needs to go. | |
Borrowing of s stops once last &s is last used, not when &s dropped. | |
&mut s | Same, but will produce a mutable borrow. |
A &mut will allow the owner of the borrow (address) to change s content. | |
This reiterates that not the value in s, but location of s is borrowed. | |
S<'a> {} | Signals that S will hold at least one address (i.e., reference). |
'a will be determined automatically by the user of this struct. | |
'a will be chosen as small as possible. | |
f<'a>(x: &'a T) | Signals this function will accept an address (i.e., reference). |
-> &'a S | ... and that it returns one. |
'a will be determined automatically by the caller. | |
'a will be chosen as small as possible. | |
'a will be picked so that it satisfies input and output at call site. | |
'a is mix of where x comes from and f(x) goes. | |
| In addition, propagate borrow state according to lifetime names! | |
So while result address with 'a is used, input address with 'a is locked. | |
Here: while s from let s = f(&x) is around, x counts as 'borrowed'. | |
<'a, 'b: 'a> | The lifetimes declared in S<> and f<> can also have bounds. |
The <'a, 'b> part means the type will handle at least 2 addresses. | |
The 'b: 'a part is a lifetime bound, and means 'b must outlive 'a. | |
Any address in an &'b X must exist at least as long as any in an &'a Y. |
Formatting Strings
Formatting applies to print!, eprint!, write! (and their -ln siblings like println!).
The format! macro can create a formatted String.
Each format argument follows a basic grammar:
{[argument][':'[[fill]align][sign]['#']['0'][width]['.' precision][type]]}
The full grammar is specified in the
std::fmt documentation, but here are some commonly used flags:
| Element | Meaning |
|---|---|
argument | Omitted (next {}), number (0, 1, ...) or identifier for named arguments. |
align | Left (<), center (^), or right (>) , if width is specified, fills with fill. |
# | Alternate formatting. Pretty-print with {:#?}, for example. |
0 | Zero-pads numeric values. |
width | Minimum width (≥ 0), padding with fill (default to space). |
precision | Decimal digits (≥ 0) for numerics, or max width for non-numerics. |
type | Debug (?), hex (x), binary (b), or octal (o) (there are more, using Traits). |
Note that width and precision can use other arguments as their values, allowing for dynamic sizing of fields.
Examples:
| Example | Explanation |
|---|---|
{:#?} | Pretty-print the next argument using Debug. |
{2:#?} | Pretty-print the 3rd argument using Debug. |
{val:^2$} | Center the val named argument, width specified by the 3rd argument. |
{:<10.3} | Left align with width 10 and a precision of 3. |
{val:#x} | Format val argument as hex, with a leading 0x (alternate format for x). |
Tooling
Some commands and tools that are good to know.
| Command | Description |
|---|---|
cargo init | Create a new project for the latest edition. |
cargo build | Build the project in debug mode (--release for all optimization). |
cargo check | Check if project would compile (much faster). |
cargo test | Run tests for the project. |
cargo run | Run your project, if a binary is produced (main.rs). |
cargo doc --open | Locally generate documentation for your code and dependencies. |
cargo rustc -- -Zunpretty=X | Show more desugared Rust code, in particular with X being: |
expanded | Show with expanded macros, ... |
cargo +{nightly, stable} ... | Runs command with given toolchain, e.g., for 'nightly only' tools. |
rustup docs | Open offline Rust documentation (incl. the books), good on a plane! |
A command like
cargo build means you can either type cargo build or just cargo b.
These are optional rustup components.
Install them with rustup component add [tool].
| Tool | Description |
|---|---|
cargo clippy | Additional (lints) catching common API misuses and unidiomatic code. 🔗 |
cargo fmt | Automatic code formatter (rustup component add rustfmt). 🔗 |
These are 3rd party tools and usually need to be installed with cargo install cargo-[tool] first.
They often require unstable and are subject to break.
| Command | Description |
|---|---|
cargo asm | Show generated assembly instructions for code. 🔗 |
cargo outdated | List upgradable dependencies. 🔗 |
cargo tree | Print dependencies as a tree. 🔗 |
cargo-edit | Meta package (cargo install cargo-edit) 🔗. Provides: |
cargo add <crate> | Add latest version of <crate> to your Cargo.toml. |
cargo rm <crate> | Remove <crate> from your Cargo.toml. |
cargo upgrade <crate> | Upgrade the version of <crate> to the latest. |
cargo flamegraph | Visualize CPU time (cargo install flamegraph). 🔗 OSX, Linux only |
